03 The Spirit of Western Humanities

Published

2026-07-14

Ancient Greece: coexistence of gods and humans

The Renaissance and the Rise of Humanism

The Middle Ages: 476 CE – Fall of the Western Roman Empire, end of antiquity in the West

Feudal society
Cultural uniformity; Christianity dominated
Cultural venues: Christian churches
Mysticism, monasticism

All other sciences are but handmaids to sacred theology.

— Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

11th century: signs of intellectual revival
12th century: natural sciences gradually developed
Late Middle Ages: emergence of universities
No prominent humanist scholars appeared

The Renaissance: c. 14th – early 17th century

Return to ancient Greece and Rome, classical culture

Renaissance = “revival of antiquity” (Liang Qichao)

Humanist Zeitgeist
- Emphasis on human dignity, in opposition to God; resisting the suppression of human nature by divinity
- “Humanity” (human nature)
First humanist of the Renaissance: Petrarch

What use is it to know the natures of birds, beasts, and fish, yet be ignorant of human nature, not knowing where we come from, where we are going, or why we live?
— Petrarch

Origin: Italy
- Former land of ancient Rome
- Coastal, maritime trade
- Earliest emergence of capitalist sprouts

Humanist Literature

Basic Characteristics

Content: directly depict real human life, affirm the value and dignity of human existence, call for individual freedom and liberation, express confidence in human development, and criticize the medieval church and theology that suppressed humanity;
Language: except for a few works in Latin, most were written in the vernacular languages of their respective nations;
- National cohesion and pride
- Reached a wider domestic readership, expanded the reading public, and promoted the formation of national literary languages
Diverse genres.
- Poetry, sonnets
- Novels
- Drama (evolved from ancient Greek tragedy and comedy)
- Essays
- …

The Earliest Humanist Writer: Dante

The last poet of the Middle Ages and the first poet of the new age
— Engels

Opposed papal interference in Florence, was exiled
The Divine Comedy
- In an age of transition, how a person passes through confusion and suffering to reach the supreme good
- Reserved a certain place for theology, but affirmed humanity’s quest for truth
- Written in Italian; the first national poet of Italy

Petrarch: “Father of the Renaissance”

Called for “revival”: language, literature, thought, morality
“Study of man,” “humanities”
“The Dark Ages”
Canzoniere (Song Book)
- Love for Laura
- Love of life, pursuit of love
- Rebellion against medieval asceticism
- Sonnets

Boccaccio

The Decameron: a collection of short stories
- Sources drawn from history, anecdotes, folk tales and fables, courtly tales, etc.; both Eastern and Western
- Stories adapted to the Italian setting, reflecting the real life of 14th-century Italy
- Witty, humorous, sharp; celebrates real life; satirizes the decadence and hypocrisy of the Church
- “The Human Comedy” (in contrast to the Divine Comedy)

Novels / Romances

Rabelais, Gargantua and Pantagruel

Based on folk tales
Exaggerated, comical, satirical language
A humanist utopia

(The Renaissance was) “the age of giants”
It was the greatest progressive revolution that mankind had ever experienced, an age that needed giants and produced giants – giants in power of thought, passion, and character, in versatility and learning. The men who laid the foundations for modern bourgeois rule were by no means limited by bourgeois narrowness.
— Engels, Dialectics of Nature

Cervantes, Don Quixote

Shakespeare

The greatest dramatic genius of humanity
— Marx

Greatest achievement: drama
Hamlet
- The avenging prince: representative of humanist thinkers
Transcended the limitations of his own class (the emerging bourgeoisie)
- Opposed feudal theocracy
- Criticized the negative aspects of primitive capitalist accumulation: brutality, selfishness, coldness

Humanist Historiography

Bruni, History of the Florentine People

The first humanist historical work

Biondo, Decades of History from the Decline of the Roman Empire

Medieval history, covering 410–1440

Machiavelli, Florentine Histories

Failure, darkness, corruption
“The lessons of failure”

Humanist Philosophy

Different paths:

Literature-oriented
- Focus on the inner world of humans, moral philosophy
- Montaigne, Essays
  - Scepticism
  “All certain things are in fact uncertain”
  “What do I know?”
  “Protagoras gave us an incredible tale, making man the measure of all things, yet never once measured himself” (Protagoras: “Man is the measure of all things”)
  - Humanism → reflection on humanity itself
  “I have my own law and court to judge myself”
Natural science-oriented
- Observation of the external world, natural philosophy
- Heliocentrism
  - Geocentrism served Christian theology
  - Bruno:
    - The Sun is the center of the solar system
    - Outside the solar system, there are countless worlds similar to it
    - Earth is but a speck of dust in the universe
    “Among all philosophies, the best is that which most conveniently and nobly expresses the perfection of human reason, most conforms to natural truth, and cooperates as much as possible with nature.”
- Bacon
  - New method for scientific research
  - Aristotle’s Organon (syllogistic logic) → Novum Organum (The New Instrument)
    - Everyday perceptions and experiences are unreliable and need purification
    - Theory of idols (idola)
    - Induction → general principles → explanation of other phenomena
    - Science guides humanity in conquering nature
    “Knowledge is power”

The Evolution of Western Humanistic Spirit

Renaissance:
- Criticized Christian theology
- Developed science, pursued knowledge
- Sought real, earthly happiness
- Scientism
Modern times: reflection on scientism, economism, and mammonism
- (Extreme) scientism: the belief that the methodology of natural sciences is dominant and must be applied to the humanities, neglecting the distinct methodologies of the humanities
- Opposition to reducing humans to merely natural life, the divine world, or a part of the cultural world

--- title: "03 The Spirit of Western Humanities" date: 2026-07-14 --- - Ancient Greece: coexistence of gods and humans # The Renaissance and the Rise of Humanism ## The Middle Ages: 476 CE – Fall of the Western Roman Empire, end of antiquity in the West - Feudal society - Cultural uniformity; Christianity dominated - Cultural venues: Christian churches - Mysticism, monasticism > All other sciences are but handmaids to sacred theology. > > — Thomas Aquinas, *Summa Theologiae* - 11th century: signs of intellectual revival - 12th century: natural sciences gradually developed - Late Middle Ages: emergence of universities - No prominent humanist scholars appeared ## The Renaissance: c. 14th – early 17th century - Return to ancient Greece and Rome, classical culture > Renaissance = “revival of antiquity” (Liang Qichao) - Humanist Zeitgeist - Emphasis on human dignity, in opposition to God; resisting the suppression of human nature by divinity - “Humanity” (human nature) - First humanist of the Renaissance: Petrarch > What use is it to know the natures of birds, beasts, and fish, yet be ignorant of human nature, not knowing where we come from, where we are going, or why we live?\ > — Petrarch - Origin: Italy - Former land of ancient Rome - Coastal, maritime trade - Earliest emergence of capitalist sprouts # Humanist Literature ## Basic Characteristics 1. **Content**: directly depict real human life, affirm the value and dignity of human existence, call for individual freedom and liberation, express confidence in human development, and criticize the medieval church and theology that suppressed humanity; 2. **Language**: except for a few works in Latin, most were written in the vernacular languages of their respective nations; - National cohesion and pride - Reached a wider domestic readership, expanded the reading public, and promoted the formation of national literary languages 3. **Diverse genres**. - Poetry, sonnets - Novels - Drama (evolved from ancient Greek tragedy and comedy) - Essays - ... ## The Earliest Humanist Writer: Dante > The last poet of the Middle Ages and the first poet of the new age\ > — Engels - Opposed papal interference in Florence, was exiled - *The Divine Comedy* - In an age of transition, how a person passes through confusion and suffering to reach the supreme good - Reserved a certain place for theology, but affirmed humanity's quest for truth - Written in Italian; the first national poet of Italy ## Petrarch: “Father of the Renaissance” - Called for “revival”: language, literature, thought, morality - “Study of man,” “humanities” - “The Dark Ages” - *Canzoniere* (Song Book) - Love for Laura - Love of life, pursuit of love - Rebellion against medieval asceticism - Sonnets ## Boccaccio - *The Decameron*: a collection of short stories - Sources drawn from history, anecdotes, folk tales and fables, courtly tales, etc.; both Eastern and Western - Stories adapted to the Italian setting, reflecting the real life of 14th-century Italy - Witty, humorous, sharp; celebrates real life; satirizes the decadence and hypocrisy of the Church - “The *Human* Comedy” (in contrast to the Divine Comedy) ## Novels / Romances ### Rabelais, *Gargantua and Pantagruel* - Based on folk tales - Exaggerated, comical, satirical language - A humanist utopia > (The Renaissance was) “the age of giants”\ > It was the greatest progressive revolution that mankind had ever experienced, an age that needed giants and produced giants – giants in power of thought, passion, and character, in versatility and learning. The men who laid the foundations for modern bourgeois rule were by no means limited by bourgeois narrowness.\ > — Engels, *Dialectics of Nature* ### Cervantes, *Don Quixote* ## Shakespeare > The greatest dramatic genius of humanity\ > — Marx - Greatest achievement: drama - *Hamlet* - The avenging prince: representative of humanist thinkers - Transcended the limitations of his own class (the emerging bourgeoisie) - Opposed feudal theocracy - Criticized the negative aspects of primitive capitalist accumulation: brutality, selfishness, coldness # Humanist Historiography ## Bruni, *History of the Florentine People* - The first humanist historical work ## Biondo, *Decades of History from the Decline of the Roman Empire* - Medieval history, covering 410–1440 ## Machiavelli, *Florentine Histories* - Failure, darkness, corruption - “The lessons of failure” # Humanist Philosophy Different paths: - **Literature-oriented** - Focus on the inner world of humans, moral philosophy - Montaigne, *Essays* - Scepticism > “All certain things are in fact uncertain”\ > “What do I know?”\ > “Protagoras gave us an incredible tale, making man the measure of all things, yet never once measured himself” (Protagoras: “Man is the measure of all things”) - Humanism → reflection on humanity itself > “I have my own law and court to judge myself” - **Natural science-oriented** - Observation of the external world, natural philosophy - Heliocentrism - Geocentrism served Christian theology - Bruno: - The Sun is the center of the solar system - Outside the solar system, there are countless worlds similar to it - Earth is but a speck of dust in the universe > “Among all philosophies, the best is that which most conveniently and nobly expresses the perfection of human reason, most conforms to natural truth, and cooperates as much as possible with nature.” - Bacon - New method for scientific research - Aristotle's *Organon* (syllogistic logic) → *Novum Organum* (The New Instrument) - Everyday perceptions and experiences are unreliable and need purification - Theory of idols (idola) - Induction → general principles → explanation of other phenomena - Science guides humanity in conquering nature > “Knowledge is power” # The Evolution of Western Humanistic Spirit - Renaissance: - Criticized Christian theology - Developed science, pursued knowledge - Sought real, earthly happiness - Scientism - Modern times: reflection on scientism, economism, and mammonism - (Extreme) scientism: the belief that the methodology of natural sciences is dominant and must be applied to the humanities, neglecting the distinct methodologies of the humanities - Opposition to reducing humans to merely natural life, the divine world, or a part of the cultural world